• Ê
  • Â

fMichael has 11 post(s)

 Å

% Michael Li completed

A large part of what Lila Abu-Lughod tries to build on is that any observing parties must recognize that they themselves are subject to equal observation by others and themselves. One stance some may take by mistake is that in order to properly analyze a culture, one first remove themself from the international culture ecosystem. Doing so removes an important part of the equation of determining what problems in societies are, and what we should consider to address said problems. This is due to the fact that If analyzed at face value we overlook, or completely ignore the questions that ask why things are the way they are and solely focus on what they are at the present time; we may also do so incorrectly (Abu-Lughod, 2002:787).

 

Abu-Lughod presents her own experiences of interacting with media and those who influence the public on matters of foreign affairs. In general, if the aforementioned thought process is not considered, the result of an analysis may be reduced to nothing but a meaningless and helpful polarization in cultures between the analyzer and the analyzed (Abu-Lughod, 2002:784).

 

It seems Abu-Lughod supports the idea that the way we analyze anything may be done so in a way to rationalize and justify our goals and therefore the method of said analysis is unreliable. She highlights how American media has moved in the direction of justifying war through the illusion that the nation understands what freedom is to the cultural other (Abu-Lughod, 2002:784, 788). Women are used as objects for these justifications. She uses the American focus on the veil as an example and compares it to the larger and more valid concern of women in Afghanistan. The oppressive symbol of the veil, is a lesser concern to women than their immediate safety (Abu-Lughod, 2002:787).

 

Furthermore, she recognizes that which many may not want to. That being there are issues within reach that we neglect entirely while giving so much attention to aspects of a struggle that are entirely irrelevant to any agenda. Why do we turn a blind eye on other human rights issues? Why do we focus so heavily on the symbol of the veil?

 Å

% Michael Li completed

It seems Cabezas approaches sex tourism as less of an explicit and formal exchange than many may think. Contemporary sex tourism is steeped in social dynamics. In exchange for their labor, sex workers will sometimes receive, in addition to money, food, clothing, and other necessities, or luxuries. Some tourist will even establish a means of communication with their foreign companion while over seas at home. This what many sex workers hope to get into. The desire for a long term relationship through the means of sex tourism is highly sought after because it provides a lasting security.

 

On both sides of the market the consumer and provider of service (sex workers) have a social status assigned to them. These assignments are usually dictated by the government (Cabezas 1008). Male sex workers are considered heroes while female sex workers are considered as being negatively impactful to society   (Cabezas 1008). It seems Cabezas links how this social perception affects the relationship between these sex workers and the government. They are unfairly treated based on the way they dress, their sexuality, and gender. Women, it would seem, are weighed more heavily in their actions and how they affect society. This leads to wrongful punishment through law enforcement and dehumanization of women in general as this does not happen to only sex workers (Cabezas 1007).

 

Cabezas asserts that, moving forward, government should work towards representing women’s rights and sexual rights more. Women’s body is currently controlled by social groups and the state whereas it’s agency should be depend solely on the individual herself.

 Å

% Michael Li completed

The article explores a less exposed aspect of analyzing a snapshot of today’s global economy and how existing and highly developed capitalistic societies affect other societies that have not been privatized to an extreme degree. The authors quickly establish the concept of global migration and how it is not so deeply explored beyond the conditions of the work itself and the material exchange gain of the workers and employers (the hiring class of these first world countries) (Devi, 2008:406). They, instead, focus on the social effect it has on the families of migrant workers who seek service work.

 

Through a numerous set of examples, the authors effectively illustrate the demand for domestic labor in first world countries and the ability for mothers in third world countries to fulfill it. The first negative effect is that the country that exports this labor may actually be in need of these laborers. Some countries may not, however. The commonality between these types of economy is the stress pushed onto families.

 

The authors define the commons as being anything that is shared in a community, a place where favors are exchanged, and where families and communities can gather and share their company. This does not exist to the degree it once use to in the capitalistic north countries as they do in the south countries. Mothers will migrate to these countries to secure a job in this privatized market. What they leave behind are children that will then need to be cared for by other family members, or friends. This will put stress on the children as it will for the mothers since it forces them to rationalize these broken relationships, with an implication that there is little to no guidance by the authors.

 

The importance of this issue is expressed as a necessary component of properly analyzing the effect of countries as a whole. This loss of the commons cause by the empty space left behind by an absent mother can have cultural wide negative effects. The siphoning of migrant mothers from their commons-culture societies to satisfy a capitalist society’s’ labor demands can have lasting effects as the effected children may grow up emotionally and physiologically damaged

 Å

% Michael Li completed

Working in customer service, I am frequently treated as an outsider. The service-class of a capitalistic industry is a medium through which those outside and above it- those who hold the means of production- can exercise power. This is done so in various degrees and the intention is, sometimes, to degrade. In relation to Collin’s work, these interactions end with the execution of power by some individual knowing that secrets about them reveled in said execution are kept safe, as insured by the system they carry out their business in.

Collins talks much about the advantages of being an outsider and how such a position is important to contributions of development in sociological work.   This perspective allows an outsider to see things without bias, patterns normally overlooked, or unnoticed, and gain valuable information that would be otherwise unattainable as someone who is trusted as being someone from within (Collins, 1986:15).

Collins focuses on Afro-American women as a group, but also emphasizes the importance for them to recognize that everyone in said group is their own individual with their own experiences and circumstances (Collins, 1986:16). This is an important parallel to draw between the outsider concept and the fact that other individuals, even in the same group may notice things another does not. Therefore, to properly evaluate the state of sociological discourses, Afro-American women must be able to document their ideas and submit them for evaluation by others.

Collins talks about the pursuit of creating and evaluating sociological discourses as if it is a tool to combat contemporary racism and sexism, which she observes as existing the subtlest ways. She refers to Judith Rollins experiences in which she was ignored while at work (Collins, 1986:18). Awareness experiences like these should be documented and considered through discourses. It can lead to realization of one’s imposed definition of their self by another group/individual. Such group/individual gains power the more they define an outsider. This can be used to separate and categorize outsiders, which renders them powerless. Collins notes that the two most effective ways to combat this is to resist and then create a definition of ones’ self without an external influence.

 Å

% Michael Li completed

Hooks describes the relationship between primarily white people and, in general, people of “Other” races, but specifically black people and culture for examples to explain her arguments. She notices that this relationship can be observed by focusing on its correlation with consumer culture.

It seems that it is not beyond the understanding of the white males Hooks describes, while in a university town, as being unaware of the history of white supremacy and rationalizes their contemporary behavior and goals as being against those ideals. She describes their desires of sleeping with as many non-white women to leave their sheltered and uncultured lives and enter into a world, with these women as witnesses, of excitement that these cultures have to offer (Hooks, 368). The avenue of experiencing this culture is through sex and is a campaign not viewed as a conquest. Hooks, argues otherwise. Racism is exercised subtlety, as these white males want to consume the bodies of these women and enter their culture, leaving their more safe and reserved ones behind. The Others’ culture is highly sexualized.

For one thing to consume the other, these two entities must be separate. The metaphorical idea of consumption expresses Hooks concepts of the consumer being a dominant force between the two – the white males and women of the Others. This separation achieves two things. The first is to set a foundation on which one can return to and feel safe while the second is to open an opportunity to leave this safety and experience a perceived sense of accomplishment by exploiting the differences of the Other. This indulgence of the dominating group is achieved by taking from the Other group, hence a consumption, and not allowing the Other to retain an equality.

The desire to dominate and impose suffering on the Other is masked by the new narrative of the dominator as having been seduced whereby the seduction is a choice of the other (Hooks, 369). This is caused by subtle racism. The idea of seduction contradicts the ideals of past racially charged conquests which, without scrutiny, will disguise racism and even paint he dominator as a good doer. This is institutionally enabled by the commodification of the Others’ cultures whereby they are promised recognition, but in contradiction this actually does more social harm than good because it allows an avenue of asserting dominance by non-Others(Hooks, 370).

In more objective examples, Hooks draws upon the economic exploitation of the Other culture(s) through consumer culture. Through examples of modern advertising, we see that Other cultures only silhouette whiteness. The focal point is whiteness and it serves to pierce through the primitive (Hooks, 373). This creates a degenerating cycle that harms the cause of the Other(s) because it culturally appropriates them. They will then defend by responding with nationalism, which is interpreted by white intellectuals as naive essentialism, a predisposition to behavior based on inherent traits.

As to why cultural appropriation is so damaging to the Other(s), Hooks expands on the concepts of essentialism. She mentions Langston Hughes and his essay, “ Hip, and the Long Front of Color”, and how a critic of his work, Andrew Ross, describes it as a complaint (373). Hooks raises a defense for Hughes saying that he was simply making a point that the art created by his culture had been robbed and how it was a way for it to be expressed and separated from white culture to achieve a sense of freedom. This sense of freedom is indeed needed in the context of a culture, political and economic system that so heavily favors, presumably, middle class and higher white people. As mentioned before, Ross would be an example of someone who does not understand the difference between nationalism as a way to reclaim relevance to resist a dominating force and essentialism.

Taking a part of the Other(s) culture and appropriating it results in consuming said culture. The consumer gains by decontextualizing causing the culture being consumed to lose by not being accredited for this avenue of indulgence and being denied their opposition against a history of the aforementioned oppression. The concept of consuming the Other(s) explains how the dominant consumer participates in the relationship without regard for what the Other is gaining, or losing.

 Å

% Michael Li completed

The students at River High are taught and conditioned to behave in a formatted way that perpetuates heterosexuality and actively creates differences in male and female students to do so. In general, schools institutionalize hetero-normative activities both activity through policies and subliminally through everyday socializing (Pascoe, 2007: 26).

At River High, Ms. Mac teased two students, a boy and a girl, walking in late together and talking. The tease defined heterosexuality suggesting a relationship that is sexually charged between these two students (Pascoe, 2007: 31). She is supporting the ideal that a proper relationship should be between two people of the opposite gender who do not deviate from their assigned gender roles.

In one of Ms. Mac’s classes she had to collect condoms being handed out to other students (Pascoe, 2007: 34). She, a faculty member, was denying students the access to an item that would help them have safer sex. This is one of many examples of school employees contradicting themselves in that they will perpetual heterosexuality, but not allow the act of sex, or simply pretend it was non-existent.

Teachers constantly ignore homophobic comments. Such comments are displays of dominance and a means to define what isn’t desirable, or normal (homosexuality) (Pascoe, 2007: 36). Mr. McNally rebuked direct/declarative homophobic comments such as using “gay” synonymously to “stupid”. He still engaged students in homophobic comments subliminally when he teased a student that suggested he was going to engage in homosexual activities. These homophobic tendencies were used as way to get around being directly offensive and still achieve the perpetuation of heterosexuality as the accepted norm.

Dances allowed students to be sexual promiscuous and promote the differences in masculinity and femininity. At these events, females were able to show their availability and desire to be sexual objects by taking off their clothes (Pascoe, 2007: 42). The regulation of these events by the school shows how they were interested in both the allowing sexism, but at the same time restricting sexual activity.

We can conclude that River High is an example that denying students open discussion of sexual activity, but promoting a heterosexual culture can coexist.

 Å

% Michael Li completed

Industrialization caused a rise in the demand for labor. Women have been exploited for their labor in the oppression that resulted in the capitalistic wage system. Federici discusses the advent of the full-time housewife whose image and role in society seem to be institutionalized in order to exploit their ability to produce children and replenish the labor force. The exploitation of women is the product of a male controlled wage system in which women were separated from. This increased their dependence on men therefore they were molded into their limited roles as housewives that birthed, and mothered children without any recognition, or reward.

The exploitation of reproductive labor seems to have been catalyzed the creation of the housewife role, but ideas of molding women into such an image had been apparent throughout history. Morgan discusses how traveling men viewed women from around the world. Through their lens, they also generalize cultures. This is concept is critical in understanding how the exploitation of women is rationalized.

As fascinated as they were, European travelers found the appearance and behavior of women barbaric. Women body parts were not an exhaustive topic. The ongoing analysis of animalistic breasts does also happen to appropriately follow the topic of giving birth. Writers emphasized how astonishingly high the rate of birth was as well as how public they were. Their ability to reproduce seemed to be far greater than that of a their European counterparts, yet they were still viewed as being barbaric.

Through observing women, these seemingly uncontrolled family structures of these different cultures were at constant discord with what Europeans considered civilized life. Between Morgan and Federici, the reproductive labor of women had been exploited due to both capitalism and years of rationalizing that their oppression of women in the home is appropriate in the context of civil life.

 Å

% Michael Li completed

Europeans sought to categorize people by race and gender. This was not without purpose as they did so in a way to retain superiority when faced with discoveries and realizations that contradicted their own narrative of the foreigners. They sought to validate their own culture with which they thought they had an abundance of in comparison to foreigners.

Women were used as a means to express racial superiority. Morgan emphasizes how writers would frame their experiences with women from other races and foreign countries in what they had defined as femininity. They empathized how much of it these foreign women lacked.

Men seemed to have been fascinated and stimulated by the appearance of nonwhite women, but could not accept that it was the result of such different standards than what they were use to. Morgan observes that this fascination is always dominated by racism as seen in Girolamo Benzoni recounting of his experience when meeting an indigenous American women. He describes how her appearance, including highlights about the darker colors in clothing and makeup, influences why he considers this woman, as well as her people, as racially inferior.

European femininity emphasized the importance of reproduction and physical appearance. The appearance and birthing rate of nonwhite women contradicted what they considered feminine. Morgan analyzes Sebatian Munster’s A Trea- tyseof the Newe India and notices that he somewhat feared this contradiction. She also identifies the agenda of white men; that being both white women and non white women must be exploited for their labor, but done so in a way that white women were still superior than their counterparts. Labeling other races savages achieved this (Morgan, 2004, 12). White men compared white women to nonwhite women by using differences on physical appearance standards such as breasts (Morgan, 2004: 21).

Morgan also points out the importance of men having to deal with the contradiction that the African women they sought to enslave and exploit for their labor shared glaring similarities with their white counterparts. The female body was exploited by men in similar ways between races, a problem in maintaining the hierarchy which granted them superiority.

Discussion question: Were men conscious of the similarities in white and non white women?

 Å

% Michael Li completed

Before the privatization of land, rural communities included land reserved for communal activities. People could convene here without worry of another party’s interference. The open land system was eventually abolished and physical barriers divided land. This was the end of the communal area.

The privatization of land displaced many and gave rise to the system of production-for-market (Frederici, 2004: 83). Gone was the self-sustaining system of production-for-use. The methods of making a living shifted from providing for one’s self to exportation of the product. This gave rise to the wage system, which institutionalized a form of slavery (Frederici, 2004: 81).

The impact of this economic change treated women in ways not experienced by men. Women had lost their forum and space to meet with one another without interference of men. (Frederici, 2004: 80). They had fewer options to rely on when making a living. Where their counterparts could carry weapons into combat, or be seen as capable wageworkers, the role of women was boiled down reproduction. Women were not credited for their laborious work, that being replenishing the work force (Frederici, 2004: 83). What was held in high value was being able to produce, whereas to reproduce was not. This was one of the most significant ways women were degraded in the aftermath of land privatization.

Following this was the import of silver and gold from America. The European wage system allow for these two imports to regulate prices.

The means of production was taken away from the poor since land was privatized and work became compensated in wages. The wage collapse followed the importation of silver and gold from American and the resulting price regulation effects these two materials would have. Work hours increased and wages decreased. Food became scarce of producers would horde their products and food became the most desired materialistic thing (Frederici, 2004: 91).

The wages of women plummeted far below what they had for men (Frederici, 2004: 86). The poor could not sustain themselves and would starve. Desperation lead to food revolts, usually lead by women, in which businesses would be raided for their food (Frederici, 2004: 91). Prostitution increased dramatically during the wage collapse and the exploitation of women had reached a new way of degrading them.

 Å

% Michael Li completed

Those in control of political voice, education and, economy recognized the threat and actively resisted the endeavor and struggle of legitimizing the opposing claims and, in the right mind of any logical person, the sound arguments that demonstrated the end of such absolute control.

Davis’ brief overview highlights major events in history, some more catalytic than others, but all contributing to the rise of equal rights. I believe the collection of these events serve to illustrate the relationship between gender, race, and class in respect to the state of the economy and, equally important, state of political and educational accessibility.

Male supremacy was supported by a system rooted in economic conditions, specifically industrialization and slavery. This institutionalized the behavior resulted in casting women as inferior to men. Inferiority is inflicted onto both genders and all races in all classes. Perhaps the only exception to this that Davis does not mention would be poor white men, but even so they would have an advantage in the bout of political and economic struggle. So powerful was the institutionalization of male supremacy that women on their own private lives would be presented by the men in their families who claimed the credit of anything productive the women would do (Davis, 1981,61).

The restricted access to political voice and education among white women and people of color was made apparent, when Sojourner Truth stepped into the arena (Davis, 1981,66). Perhaps it was the confidence in her speech and sound arguments against the logic that men had built their formalized dominance over women on. She showed that even with resistance to a basic education as well as a tremendous disadvantage in political combat, people of both genders and all races in any class could rise up against institutionalized male supremacy.

The correlation of the exploitation of white women in the birth of industrialization and slavery were not recognized as systematic parallels immediately (Davis: 1981,71).  The domination of one over the other crosses all races, classes, and genders due to economy.